Are Gritty Students Academically Engaged in Math and Science?

Acknowledgement: This research was funded by the Research Grant Council—Early Career Scheme (ECS Project No. 28611119) awarded to the first author. Note that this study was part of an on-going longitudinal project which aims to explore the longitudinal associations of grit with key learning processes and outcomes in these three settings.
All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

There is a growing recognition about the importance of cultivating non-cognitive abilities in school contexts (Durlak et al., 2011; Park et al., 2018). One of the non-cognitive abilities that previous studies have been linked to achievement and well-being outcomes is grit. Grit is a dispositional psychological resource characterized by perseverance of effort (enduring hardships, failures, and adversities) and consistency of interests (sticking to one goal-related interest and pathways) when pursuing long-term goals (Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009).

Although grit has been associated with a range of positive educational outcomes such as academic achievement (Duckworth et al., 2007; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Lam & Zhou, 2019) and school motivation (Eskreis-Winkler et al., 2014), extant literature (Credé et al., 2017; Datu et al., 2017b; Disabato et al., 2019) shared key theoretical and methodological flaws in the two-factor model of grit. First, previous studies have demonstrated that the two-factor model of grit underpinned by perseverance and consistency was not generalizable in different contexts and only perseverance was linked to academic and psychological outcomes (Credé et al., 2017; Datu et al., 2017b). Second, the consistency subscale had problematic reliability estimates in non-Western and collectivist societies (Datu et al., 2016; Disabato et al., 2019). Third, studies have indicated that compared to grit, conscientiousness had stronger associations with objective academic achievement (Dumfart & Neubauer, 2016; Steinmayr et al., 2018). Further, overall grit score was not linked to achievement after controlling for the effects of different covariates such as gender, year level, and socioeconomic status (Usher et al., 2019). These studies allude to the importance of developing alternative and culturally sensitive models of grit.

Thus, TMG (Datu et al., 2017a, 2018a) has been developed, which conceptualized grit as passion, perseverance, and adaptability for temporally distant goals. This extended model of grit incorporates adaptability to situations dimension, which involves flexibly modifying goal-related pathways based on situational, social, and contextual factors (Datu et al., 2017a, 2018a). Prior studies have shown that perseverance and adaptability domains were associated with increased academic and career development self-efficacy (Datu et al., 2017a), academic engagement as well as motivation (Datu et al., 2018b), and well-being outcomes (Datu et al., 2021). However, evidence regarding the generalizability and academic benefits of TMG has only been demonstrated in selected non-Western countries such as the Philippines (Datu et al., 2017a, 2018b), mainland China (Datu & Zhang, 2020), and Japan (Datu et al., 2021).

Drawing from the existing grit frameworks (Datu et al., 2017a, 2018a; Duckworth et al., 2007), this study explores the cross-cultural differences on TMG dimensions and the link of TMG dimensions with academic engagement in Math and Science among junior secondary school students in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China. Although little is known regarding the generalizability and variability of grit’s dimensions in non-Western and collectivist societies, it is plausible that students in contexts characterized by long-term orientation, which reinforces values associated with orientation to long-term incentives and rewards (i.e., China and Hong Kong; Hofstede Insights, 2021), might demonstrate higher levels of grit’s dimensions compared to countries with low regard for this cultural value. Further, given the evidence supporting the adaptive role of perseverance in non-Western contexts (Datu et al., 2017a, 2018b; Disabato et al., 2019), it is plausible that this dimension may relate to higher levels of academic engagement in Math and Science in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China. Corroborating prior research on the psychological and academic benefits of adaptability in the Philippines (Datu et al., 2017a, 2018a, 2021) and mainland China (Datu & Zhang, 2020), it is likely that this TMG’s dimension may be associated with engagement in Math and Science. As past investigations have shown that consistency did not predict performance and well-being outcomes (Credé et al., 2017; Disabato et al., 2019), it possible that this TMG’s dimension might not relate to academic engagement. Further, as prior studies (Credé et al., 2017; Dumfart, & Neubauer, 2016; Steinmayr et al., 2018) have raised doubts about the ability of grit’s dimensions to predict academic outcomes beyond the effects of highly related dispositional constructs such as conscientiousness, which encompasses tendency to exercise diligence, self-discipline, and regulation (John et al., 1991), this research examines whether TMG dimensions may predict engagement in Math and Science above and beyond the contributions of conscientiousness.

This research was a cross-sectional study that investigated cross-cultural differences on TMG dimensions among selected junior secondary school students in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China and the associations of TMG’s dimensions with overall academic engagement in Math and Science after controlling for the influence of relevant covariates such as the participants’ setting and conscientiousness. Power analysis based on an effect size of 0.17 with reference to meta-analytic review (Credé et al., 2017) and a statistical power of 0.80 suggests that the desirable sample size for each participating setting is around 700 students. However, given the difficulties in arranging data collection activities due to pandemic situation in these societies, the entire sample comprised 1,386 junior secondary school students from one private school in Hong Kong (n = 101; age range = 11–14-year old; Mage = 12.44; SD = .60), nine public secondary schools in Manila City in the Philippines (n = 575; age range = 13–18 years old; Mage = 14.66; SD = .83), and two public secondary schools in Kunming City in Yunnan province, mainland China (n = 710; age range = 10–16 year-old; Mage = 13.39; SD = .56). There were 672 boys and 714 girls. Consistent with the recommended practice of Kravitz et al. (2020) in managing a research project during the COVID-19 pandemic, we described our reasons for analyzing this dataset even if the sample size did not reach the minimum sample required in Hong Kong and the Philippines to achieve the desired effect size. Given the limited access to internet among students in originally identified participating schools in the Philippines and the sudden notice of non-participation of selected schools which originally expressed approval for data collection activities in Hong Kong and mainland China as a result of the COVID-19-related class cancelations, it is realistic to conduct preliminary analyses on this data. Timely analyses of this project’s data are also essential to ensure that we could release interim executive summaries to participating secondary schools as this research may offer some implications in understanding the role of specific psychological resources that relate to effective learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The first author secured ethical review approval from the Human Research Ethics Committee of The Education University of Hong Kong. Then, consent letters were distributed to either principal or vice principal of secondary schools in Hong Kong, mainland China, and Philippines. Given the challenging pandemic situations in these contexts, an online link containing the parental consent forms, student consent forms, and survey items was provided to all participants. Approximately, completion of the survey took around 15 min.

Grit

The English (Datu et al., 2017a) and Chinese (Datu & Zhang, 2020) versions of Triarchic Model of Grit Scale (TMGS) were used to assess perseverance, consistency, and adaptability in the current study. The Cronbach’s α coefficients of perseverance in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China were .84, .76, and .86. Further, the Omega coefficients of this dimension in such contexts were .86, 86, and .87. The Cronbach’s α coefficients of consistency in Hong Kong, Philippines, and mainland China were .61, .68, and .71. The Omega coefficients of the consistency dimension in such settings were 61, .61, and .71. In addition, the Cronbach’s α coefficients of adaptability in Hong Kong, Philippines, and mainland China were .73, .76, and .74. The Omega coefficients of the adaptability dimension in such settings were 73, .73, and .76, respectively. To provide evidence about the TMGS’ technical adequacy, the concurrent validity of this scale was assessed by examining the correlations among TMGS dimensions and conscientiousness, a Big Five personality factor characterized by diligence, self-discipline, and self-control which has been strongly linked to grit (Dumfart, & Neubauer, 2016). Results showed that whereas perseverance and adaptability were positively correlated with conscientiousness in Hong Kong, mainland China, and the Philippines, consistency was positively correlated with conscientiousness only in the Philippines.

Academic Engagement in Math and Science

To measure perceived behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and social engagement of participants in Math and Science classes, a short version of the Math and Science Engagement Scales (Wang et al., 2016) was utilized. These 66-item engagement scales in Math and Science were shortened to 34 items (i.e., 17 items each for engagement in both domains of academic subjects) by deleting negatively or reverse-scored items as prior studies indicate that scales with reverse-worded items tend to have poorer psychometric properties (Carlson et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2016). The Cronbach’s α coefficients of academic engagement in Math in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China were .93, .91, and .91. The Omega coefficients of Math engagement in such contexts were .94, .90, and .90. The Cronbach’s α coefficients of the overall academic engagement in Science in Hong Kong, Philippines, and mainland China were .93, .93, and .93. The Omega coefficients of Science engagement in such settings were .94, .94, and .95 respectively.

Conscientiousness

The 5-item conscientiousness subscale of the Big Five Inventory (John et al., 1991) was used to assess this trait. The Cronbach’s α coefficients of this subscale in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China were .89, .85, and .92. The Omega coefficients of this scale in such societies were .89, .89, and .92 respectively.

As the data had 1.2%–1.9% missing responses, Little’s Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) test was conducted via the 25th version of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) to assess the patterns of missing responses. Results indicated that these responses were not missing completely at random χ2 = 77.37, df = 90, p = .83. In this case, prior research (Schlomer et al., 2010) recommended the use of expectation–maximization (EM) imputation technique. The imputed dataset was used in the succeeding analyses. Descriptive statistics and reliability coefficients in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China were also calculated using SPSS (see Table 1).

Before assessing mean-level differences in perseverance, consistency, and adaptability, test of measurement invariance was conducted. Multi-group CFA via full information maximum likelihood approach was carried out with the three-factor model of grit with perseverance, consistency, and adaptability as dimensions using AMOS. The measurement model had three latent factors, 10 observed indicators (i.e., three indicators each in the perseverance and consistency dimensions and four indicators in the adaptability domain), and 10 errors. Consistent with previous studies’ methodological guidelines (Chen, 2007; Putnick & Bornstein, 2016), if the differences in CFI and RMSEA between each level of invariance are lower than .01 and .015 respectively, invariance at a specific level was concluded. A review of changes in CFI and RMSEA indicates consistent evidence demonstrating the configural (similar number of loadings on each latent factors) and metric (similar item loadings on each factor) invariance of TMGS in these three contexts. However, there is mixed evidence regarding the scalar (similar item intercepts) invariance as the change in CFI between the scalar and metric invariance models was higher than .01 (ΔCFI = .034) while the change in RMSEA between such models was lower than .01 (ΔRMSEA = .009). Table 2 reports the findings of measurement invariance tests.

Given that there is lack of agreement on the best cut-off values for determining measurement invariance and prior research (Schuler et al., 2014) has shown that scales with some evidence of measurement non-invariance did not have impacts on composite mean differences, we decided to test whether composite mean of grit’s dimensions would be different among students in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China. To examine mean-level differences in TMG dimensions, analyses of variance were carried out using SPSS. There was a significant difference on perseverance, F(2, 1383) = 137.76, p < .001, ηp2 = .17, with students in the Philippines (M = 3.89; SD = .61) scoring significantly higher than those in Hong Kong (M = 3.01; SD = .89) and mainland China (M = 3.22; SD = .88). Students in mainland China had significantly higher scores on perseverance than those in Hong Kong. Further, there was a significant difference on consistency, F(2, 1383) = 22.86, p < .001, ηp2 = .03, with students in Hong Kong (M = 2.95; SD = .96) getting significantly higher scores than those in the Philippines (M = 2.64; SD = .73). Further, students in Mainland China (M = 2.95; SD = .89) had significantly higher scores on consistency than those in the Philippines. There was a significant difference on adaptability, F(2, 1383) = 64.83, p < .001, ηp2 = .09, with students in the Philippines (M = 4.12; SD = .60) scoring significantly higher than those in Hong Kong (M = 3.59; SD = .87) and mainland China (M = 3.68; SD = .80). Based on the conventional guideline in interpreting effect sizes (i.e., small effects = .01, medium effects = .06, and large effects = .14; Cohen, 1988), there were small (i.e., consistency), medium (i.e., adaptability), and large (i.e., perseverance) differences on TMG dimensions across these three subgroups of students.

To explore the link of TMG dimensions to overall engagement in Math and Science after controlling for the participants’ setting (i.e., Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China) and conscientiousness, we conducted a structural equation modeling using maximum likelihood estimation approach via the 26th version of the Analysis of Moment Structures. Specifically, the structural model had: (a) 4 first-order latent constructs (i.e., TMG dimensions and conscientiousness) with their respective observed indicators and error terms (i.e., 15 indicators and 15 error terms); (b) 2 second-order latent constructs (i.e., Math and Science engagement) with their respective first-order latent constructs (i.e., eight latent constructs per domain of engagement covering cognitive, behavioral, and social dimensions), observed indicators (i.e., 34 indicators), and error terms (i.e., 42 errors); (c) one observed indicator represented setting; and (d) two error terms for overall Math and Science engagement. Given that identical items were used to measure engagement in Math and Science, which could affect the fit of the hypothesized model, we correlated the error terms of all indicators of engagement as well as the error term of the higher-order engagement in Math and Science latent constructs. with reference to acceptable range of fit indices proposed by Hair et al. (2010), results showed that the model had good fit: χ2 = 5,091.57, df = 1,126, p < .001, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .050 (.049, .052), and SRMR = .065. Although all TMG dimensions were linked to higher levels of overall engagement in Math and Science after controlling for the effects of relevant covariates such as conscientiousness and the cultural contexts in which participants belong, a review of the standardized path coefficients of all the hypothesized paths indicate that whereas adaptability serves as the strongest correlate of academic engagement in Math and Science, consistency operates as the weakest correlate of such academic outcomes. Combination of these predictors accounted for 46% and 50% of the variances in Math and Science engagement respectively (Figure 1).

Although recent research shows that TMG dimensions (i.e., perseverance and adaptability) relate to well-being outcomes in different societies such as the Philippines, Japan, and Poland (Datu et al., 2021), there is limited studies on the role of grit in other non-Western contexts. This study provides a preliminary evidence on the cross-cultural variations on grit in selected non-Western settings and the link of these grit’s dimensions to overall academic engagement in Math and Science in Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China.

Before elaborating its theoretical implications, note that this study has limitations. As this research adopted a cross-sectional design, results cannot provide insights on the causal impacts of TMG on engagement in Math and Science. Future research can address this shortcoming via cross-temporal and experimental designs. This study also relied on self-reported measures of TMG and engagement in specific domains, which might be prone to common method bias. In future investigations, it is important to consider alternative approaches in assessing grit and engagement such as other-report format involving teachers and peers. Given the mixed evidence regarding the scalar invariance of TMGS, caution should be observed when interpreting mean-level differences in grit in these cultural settings. Further, as the sample in Hong Kong was drawn from one secondary school, results have limited generalizability to junior secondary school students in Hong Kong. Future research can address this shortcoming via recruiting students from other secondary schools in the said context.

One of the most interesting aspects of the findings point to the cross-cultural differences in all dimensions of grit with students in the Philippines demonstrating the highest scores on perseverance and adaptability. It is likely that both dimensions of grit may be more salient in Filipino sample as these students who were drawn from public schools primarily catering for low-income students, tend to experience more adversities associated with socioeconomic challenges and natural calamities. Exposure to these hardships may provide an opportunity to become resilient, which can explain why the suicidal rate in this setting might be lower compared to mainland China and Hong Kong. Further, students in Hong Kong and mainland China got higher scores than those in the Philippines in consistency. A potential reason that might account for the salience of consistency involves the salience of long-term orientation and achievement-oriented and competitive nature of schooling in both Chinese societies compared to Filipino setting, which underscores the importance of staying on focus in academic-related tasks. However, these speculations require further research as they were not formally evaluated in this study.

Further, this research demonstrated that all TMG dimensions were linked to higher levels of academic engagement in Math and Science even after controlling for the participants’ cultural settings and conscientiousness. These findings mostly corroborate prior studies on the positive correlations of selected TMG dimensions (i.e., perseverance and adaptability) with academic engagement across all subject areas (Datu et al., 2018b) and academic self-efficacy (Datu et al., 2017a). However, whereas prior investigations (Dumfart & Neubauer, 2016; Steinmayr et al., 2018) raised the incremental validity of grit to predict academic outcomes above and beyond the influence of related constructs such as conscientiousness and academic motivation, this study demonstrated that TMG had unique contributions to school engagement in specific subject areas. This study originally contributes to grit literature as it is the first investigation of its kind to demonstrate the academic benefits of TMG dimensions beyond the effects of cultural context and conscientiousness among junior secondary school students in non-Western contexts such as Hong Kong, the Philippines, and mainland China.

This study also points to the most salient role of adaptability in all these settings. These results reinforce extant studies (Datu et al., 2018b, 2021) about the psychological benefits of adaptability in various non-Western contexts. Drawing from existing theory on “context-sensitive self” in Asian contexts (Suh, 2007), it is plausible that adaptability and other TMG dimensions (e.g., perseverance) might be linked to increased overall engagement in Math and Science as students in collectivist settings tend to engage in actions that are relatively suitable to situational factors and interpersonal expectations. Previous research (Datu et al., 2018b) has also shown that specific motivational processes (e.g., autonomous motivation) might account for the positive associations of these TMG dimensions with engagement outcomes.

Moreover, as the current dataset was collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, the results have implications for understanding the role of grit in students’ key academic outcomes in challenging learning contexts. Given that the pandemic situation has resulted in shifting of many secondary schools from face-to-face to pure online teaching arrangements via videoconferencing platforms and other asynchronous media, it is likely that some students may struggle in coping with online academic requirements especially in specific subject areas (e.g., Math, Science, and English). It is therefore critical to pinpoint psychological factors that might protect students against the potential learning-related hazards of this pandemic. For example, a recent investigation (Yang et al., 2020) has shown that scientific self-efficacy was related to increased engagement in Science among Chinese primary school students. If grit encompasses an individual’s disposition to adopt perseverance, consistency, and adaptability in pursuing temporally remote goals, investigating developmental trajectory between grit and positive educational outcomes (i.e., achievement and engagement) may generate important insights on how grit might operate as a protective psychological resource among students with diverse cultural profiles and learning needs during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Generally, this study contributes to existing evidence in school psychological literature regarding the significance of non-cognitive abilities in fostering student success. The findings on the positive associations between TMG dimensions and engagement in Math and Science can serve as a basis for school psychologists or comparable professionals in Hong Kong and mainland China (i.e., educational psychologists) and guidance counselors in the Philippines in designing grit-based psychoeducational interventions to increase students’ active involvement in academic tasks in such academic domains. Further, the results on the most dominant role of adaptability in engagement imply that junior high school students in non-Western societies are likely to benefit from teaching and learning strategies which require demonstration of their capacity to flexibly calibrate pathways to achieve challenging long-term academic and career-related goals. School psychologists or educational psychologists can offer consultation services to teachers and parents regarding evidence-based strategies to boost their children’s persistence in academic-related setbacks.

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Submitted: November 23 , 2020 Revised: March 10 , 2021 Accepted: March 17 , 2021