Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, George Davies Centre for Medicine, University of Leicester
Kayleigh L. Warrington
Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, George Davies Centre for Medicine, University of Leicester;
Department of Psychology, Nottingham Trent University
Lin Li
Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University
Ascensión Pagán
Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, George Davies Centre for Medicine, University of Leicester
Kevin B. Paterson
Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, George Davies Centre for Medicine, University of Leicester
Sarah J. White
Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, George Davies Centre for Medicine, University of Leicester
Victoria A. McGowan;;
Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, George Davies Centre for Medicine, University of Leicester
Acknowledgement: Jiaqi Zhang and Kayleigh Warrington are joint first authors. Jiaqi Zhang, Kayleigh L. Warrington, Lin Li, and Victoria A. McGowan conducted the meta-analyses. All of the authors contributed to the preparation of the manuscript. The research was supported by a Future Research Leaders Postdoctoral Fellowship from the Economic and Social Research Council (ES/L010836/1) to Victoria A. McGowan, a 1000 Talents Visiting Professorship to Kevin B. Paterson, and a grant from the Economic and Social Research Council (ES/R005567/1) led by Sarah J. White. The data sets and analytic code are available at
Eye movement research has helped build detailed accounts of visual, cognitive, and oculomotor control processes underlying skilled reading (
Slower and more disrupted reading by older adults generally is attributed to visual and cognitive declines in older age, including slower processing of visual and linguistic information (see, e.g.,
In recent years, this hypothesis has faced two major challenges. First, the pattern of age differences predicted by the hypothesis has not been observed reliably across studies. In particular, several studies report no age differences in word-skipping or forward saccade length, despite observing slower reading by older adults (
The second challenge to the risky reading hypothesis arises from studies examining its cross-linguistic generalizability. Early studies examining age differences in reading, including
It should be clear from this overview that there exists significant variability in aging effects reported across different studies, even when ignoring the potential for cross-script differences. Several factors might contribute to this variability. First, aging research often uses small sample sizes (given difficulty recruiting older adults as participants) which may lack the statistical power required to detect effects reliably. Second, there is lack of uniformity in the age ranges investigated across studies, and in whether visual and cognitive assessments are administered to exclude participants with abilities outside the normal range. Consequently, differences may exist in participant profiles for studies showing and not showing specific patterns of aging effects. Third, evidence suggests that task demand characteristics can influence the likelihood of older adults engaging in different reading behaviors.
Research in this area has nevertheless reached a level of maturity at which it may be possible to gain insights into aging effects using meta-analysis techniques. This was the approach taken in the present research, which used meta-analysis to examine aging effects across 102 separate eye movement studies conducted in either an alphabetic script or Chinese. Meta-analysis has the advantage of synthesizing findings from multiple studies to calculate an overall effect (e.g.,
Our aim was to describe the current state of play regarding aging effects on eye movements in reading. We also aimed to provide a systematic assessment of the risky reading hypothesis, which seems timely considering recent studies that appear to contradict its predictions. Accordingly, we conducted a meta-analysis that focused on whether, compared to young adults, older adults (a) produce slower and more disrupted reading, that is, with longer reading times, more and longer fixations and more regressions across the whole of sentences, longer reading times on individual words and regions, and larger effects of word frequency and predictability in reading times for words; (b) make longer forward saccades and skip words more frequently, as characterized in the original
The full data set and analytic code used are available (see Author Note). No materials were used. The number of studies and participants that contributed to each analysis are given in
Relevant articles were identified using the search terms “eye movement*,” “reading,” and “age OR aging OR ageing OR older adult*” in Web of Science and the China Academic Journals database in August 2021. The same search terms were used to find unpublished studies in doctoral/master’s theses using major online thesis databases (ProQuest, EBSCO Open Dissertations, EThOS, OATD, DART, Deutsche Bibliothek, Theses Canada, Trove, and China Academic Journals database). Screening identified articles meeting the following inclusion criteria: (a) the article was published in English or Chinese; (b) the study examined eye movements during sentence reading in either an alphabetic language or Chinese; (c) both young (16–35 years) and older (60+ years) age groups were included, with descriptive statistics provided for each group; (d) participants were native readers of the studied language and data were available for first-language (L1) reading; (e) participants were reported to be free of eye or neurological disease; (f) at least one normal display condition was included, that is, with no unusual formatting, gaze-contingent display changes, highly unusual sentence structures (e.g., garden-path sentences), or concurrent task demands (e.g., working memory tasks); (g) descriptive statistics were available for sentences displayed normally for a least one measure examined in the meta-analysis. Individual experiments in multi-experiment articles/theses were considered separately unless using the same participants. Duplicates (e.g., where an experiment reported in a thesis was also published in article) were removed.
Adult age differences were examined across sentences (i.e., in measures incorporating eye movements across a single sentence), multiword regions (in measures incorporating eye movements across a region that contained more than one word, but less than a single sentence), and individual words in sentences (using measures incorporating eye movements for a single word). At the sentence level, we analyzed the following variables: words per minute reading rates for alphabetic scripts/characters per minute reading rates in Chinese, sentence reading time (ms), average fixation duration (ms), number of fixations, number of regressions, and forward saccade length (in letters/characters). For multiword regions, we analyzed the following variables: first-pass reading time (the sum of fixations on a region before the eyes move to the right or left, excluding cases where the region initially was skipped, in ms), regression-path duration (the sum of fixations from when the region is first fixated, to when the eyes move to its right, in ms), and total time (the sum of all fixations on the region, in ms). At the word level, we analyzed the following variables: first-fixation duration (the duration of the first first-pass fixation on a word, that is, excluding cases where the word was initially skipped, in ms), gaze duration (the sum of all first-pass fixations on a word, in ms), total reading time (the sum of all fixations on a word, in ms), and word-skipping probability (%). Additionally, adult age differences in word frequency and word predictability effects were examined using word-level measures. Only data from normal reading conditions were included (see the inclusion criteria above), averaged across different normal reading conditions (e.g., conditions containing a substituted short and long target word) where these were used.
Word-level analyses were restricted to single-word regions in sentences and averaged across words if multiple single-word regions were reported (e.g., where there was more than one target word in each sentence). For analyses of word frequency and word predictability, only studies which employed experimental manipulations were included, as corpus-based studies typically do not report descriptive data. For studies where more than two word frequency or predictability conditions were included (e.g., high, medium, low), we included the highest and lowest frequency conditions. WebPlotDigitizer (
Meta-analysis was conducted using the rma.uni function within the metafor package (
We first present sentence-level, multiword region, and word-level measures for alphabetic scripts, as adult age differences for these scripts form the basis of the risky reading hypothesis. To determine whether similar effects are observed in a nonalphabetic script, we then present sentence-level and word-level results for Chinese (note that none of the included Chinese studies assessed multiword regions). Finally, to establish whether effects obtained in alphabetic scripts might generalize to Chinese, we then present analyses examining all studies, with script type (alphabetic vs. Chinese) deviation coded (alphabetic coded as −0.5, and Chinese coded as 0.5) and included as a moderator variable. Analyses of script type were entirely between-study, as no studies examined the reading of both alphabetic languages and Chinese.
Sentence-Level Measures
Meta-analysis results for alphabetic languages are shown in
Older adults had longer sentence reading times, longer average fixations, more fixations, and more regressions, compared to young adults.
Multiword Region Measures
Forest plots for multiword region measures are shown in
Word-Level Measures
Forest plots for word-level measures are shown in
Overall, the meta-analysis showed that older adults read more slowly than young adults by making more and longer fixations and more regressions, including spending longer reading individual words and multiword regions. However, forward saccades were longer and words were skipped more often by the older adults.
Word Frequency and Word Predictability
Older adults had larger word frequency effects in gaze duration and total reading time. However, the age difference was not reliable for first-fixation durations or skipping probability. Age differences in the size of word predictability effects were not reliable for any measures.
Overall, there was evidence that, in comparison to young adults, older adults made disproportionately longer gaze durations and total reading times on words of low frequency compared to words of high frequency. However, there were no reliable age differences in the size of the predictability effects for reading times. Moreover, there was no indication of an age difference in the size of word frequency or word predictability effects in word-skipping. Accordingly, the meta-analysis presents no evidence that age differences in word-skipping are driven by older adults making greater use of lexical or contextual knowledge to guess (and so skip) upcoming words more frequently. We note, however, that this interpretation is based on only a small number of experiments (ranging from n = 3 for predictability effects on word-skipping to n = 8 for word frequency effects for the reading time measures).
Sentence-Level Measures
Meta-analysis results for Chinese are shown in
Word-Level Measures
Forest plots for word-level measures are shown in
Overall, the results show that, similarly to alphabetic scripts, older adults read Chinese more slowly than young adults, by making more and longer fixations and more regressions, and spending longer reading individual words. However, forward saccades were shorter and skipping rates were reduced for older relative to younger adults.
Word Frequency and Word Predictability
Word predictability effects were larger for older adults in first-fixation durations, gaze durations, and total reading times. There was no age difference in the size of the word predictability effect in word-skipping probability.
As with findings for alphabetic scripts, word frequency effects were larger for older than younger adults in reading time measures. Unlike the data for alphabetic scripts, word predictability effects were larger for older than younger adults across all reading time measures. Critically, there was no age difference in the effects of word frequency or predictability on word-skipping, and so no evidence that older adults made greater use of lexical or contextual knowledge to skip upcoming words. As for the analyses of word frequency and predictability effects in alphabetic languages, we note that this interpretation is based on only a small number of experiments (ranging from n = 6 for all measures of word predictability effects to n = 12 for word frequency effects in first-fixation duration and gaze duration).
Meta-analysis results for analyses that included both alphabetic languages and Chinese are shown in
Word frequency analyses that included both alphabetic and Chinese data produced main effects of age group in first-fixation durations, gaze duration, and total reading times. The moderating effect of script type was reliable for gaze duration, as age differences in the size of the word frequency effect for this measure were larger for Chinese. There was no significant moderating effect of script type for first-fixation durations or total reading times. The size of the word frequency effect in skipping probabilities did not differ as a function of age group, with no moderating effect of script. Thus, even when alphabetic and Chinese data were pooled, there was no evidence of an age difference in the influence of word frequency on word-skipping.
Word predictability analyses that included both alphabetic and Chinese data showed that the word predictability effect was larger for older adults in gaze durations and total reading times, but not first-fixation durations or word-skipping probability. Finally, script type did not reliably moderate age differences in the predictability effect for any measures.
To assess the likelihood of publication and other biases, funnel plots were created using the funnel function in the meta package (
The present meta-analysis pooled data from 102 experiments to determine age differences in eye movement behavior. We found a clear pattern of aging effects across multiple studies, even though such effects were not observed in some individual studies. In addition, data from both alphabetic scripts and Chinese confirm that older adults read more slowly, by making more fixations and regressions, and spending longer fixating words compared to young adults. Older readers of alphabetic languages make longer forward saccades and skip words more often than young adults; however, older Chinese adults make shorter forward saccades and skip words less often. There is some evidence that older adults have larger word frequency and word predictability effects in reading times than young adults, however, neither script type showed evidence of an age group difference in the effects of these variables on word-skipping.
For alphabetic scripts, including English, older adults read more slowly, made more and longer fixations and more regressions, and spent longer reading individual words. Our meta-analysis also confirms that this slowdown in reading in older age is coupled with increased word-skipping and generally longer forward saccades. This aspect of our findings is consistent with the risky reading hypothesis as described by
This leaves the question of why older adults exhibit higher word-skipping probabilities and longer forward saccades when reading alphabetic scripts. The meta-analysis suggests these effects are not moderated by a word’s frequency or predictability and so cannot be explained in terms of older adults making greater use of lexical or contextual knowledge to guess upcoming words (and so skip them more often). However, the effects might be compatible with an account in which older adults attempt to compensate for slower processing by guessing words identities based on only visual and orthographic information about upcoming words (e.g., word length, beginning letter information). Such an account may resonate with a simulation of aging effects by
The meta-analysis provided clear evidence for cross-script differences in aging effects, indicating that findings for alphabetic languages may not be generalizable to other scripts. We found that older adults read Chinese more slowly than young adults, by making more and longer fixations and more regressions. However, whereas aging effects for alphabetic scripts were characterized by increased word-skipping and longer forward saccades, for Chinese they involved skipping words infrequently and making shorter forward saccades compared to young adults.
Various explanations of these cross-script differences are possible. These include participant sampling differences across experiments with different scripts and also a specific age-related cost for Chinese. However, an explanation based on sampling differences seems unlikely given the care taken in matching young and older adult participants in most experiments, including in terms of participants’ years of education, reading experience, and vocabulary knowledge. There is therefore no indication from these studies that the young and older adult participants differ in terms of literacy (although it is worth noting that for both Chinese and alphabetic readers, matching for years of education may not fully capture variance in educational experience). Moreover, the finding from the present meta-analysis that age differences in effects of word frequency are broadly similar across alphabetic scripts and Chinese suggests that the young and older adults who participated in these experiments have similar language processing capabilities. One strong possibility is that the visual and cognitive demands associated with the Chinese script are a specific source of difficulty for older adult readers. Indeed, our analyses which included script type as a moderator indicated that age differences in sentence reading times were larger in Chinese than alphabetic languages, which is consistent with the notion that the reading of Chinese may be particularly challenging for older readers. These demands are likely to include visual processing difficulties associated with identifying complex characters (e.g.,
We note, however, that we did not find any studies that directly examined cross-linguistic age differences, and so presently our understanding of such effects is entirely based on comparisons of different studies. Such comparisons are limited by methodological differences across studies (e.g., stimuli characteristics). While direct cross-linguistic comparisons of eye movements in reading are inherently difficult (
The meta-analysis provided clear evidence for age group differences in the effects of word frequency on the processing of fixated words. This was because, compared to young adults, older adults made disproportionately longer reading times for low-frequency words relative to high-frequency words. This larger word frequency effect in older compared to young adults occurred for both the reading of alphabetic languages and Chinese. Coupled with the finding that older readers make generally longer fixations on words, these effects might be consistent with slower lexical processing in older age. This slower processing might be a consequence of cognitive decline. Alternatively, it may be because growth in the mental lexicon from a lifetime of exposure to written language can slow access to specific lexical items (e.g.,
The meta-analysis also provided some evidence of age group differences in the effects of word predictability. Older readers of Chinese had disproportionately longer reading times for low predictable compared to high predictable words in comparison to their younger counterparts. This indicates that young and older Chinese readers differ in their use of context when processing words. Older readers of alphabetic languages also showed numerically larger predictability effects than young adults in gaze durations and total reading times, although these findings did not reach conventional standards of statistical significance. Intriguingly, studies using event-related potentials (ERPs) have typically found that an ERP component (the N400) known to be sensitive to the contextual fit of a stimulus is smaller or delayed for older relative to younger adult participants, indicating that older adults might be less able to use context predictively (e.g.,
In this final section, we turn to a discussion of how our experience in performing the present meta-analysis might inform best practice in conducting and reporting eye movement studies of aging effects and inform directions future research. First, while the meta-analysis produced generally clear results, some discrepancies among studies were observed, particularly for alphabetic scripts. Some of this variability will be attributable to variations in stimulus material characteristics, for example, sentences that vary in length and/or complexity, multiword regions that differ in the number of words, or critical words that differ in length, frequency, or predictability. As noted in the Introduction, some between-study variance might be because of small sample sizes in some studies, differences in the profile of participant groups across studies, or use of experimental methods that promote more careful reading (e.g., use of frequent or difficult comprehension questions). We note that studies that have recently been cited as counterevidence for the risky reading strategy (e.g.,
Benefits may also be obtained from fuller assessment and reporting of the visual and cognitive capabilities of participant groups. Many studies (including from our laboratory) have not reported these variables comprehensively and so it is unclear whether some discrepancies between studies might be attributable to the inclusion of participants with visual or cognitive capabilities outside the normal range. Including better information about participant profiles will improve the comparability of study findings and advance understanding of how individual differences in visual and cognitive capabilities might affect reading performance. Improvements to current assessment methods should include more rigorous assessment of visual abilities, which decline markedly in older age and are affected by eye disease common to older adults (e.g., cataract, age-related macular degeneration; see
It also became apparent in conducting the meta-analysis that many studies (again, including some from our own laboratory) do not fully report all eye movement measures that are useful for assessing aging effects. In some cases, this was sufficiently serious that experiments, including several considered to be landmark studies in the field, violated our inclusion criteria. These included studies which either did not report raw means or variance or did not provide descriptive statistics separately for normal and nonnormal text displays (e.g.,
Finally, we consider it important to note that investigations of aging effects on eye movements in reading conducted to date tend to be limited to the reading of isolated sentences by young (18–35 years) or older adults (65–80 years). Few studies have investigated reading multi-sentence texts (but see
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Submitted: May 8, 2020 Revised: November 8, 2021 Accepted: November 9, 2021